#!markdown

# Chapter 6 - Implementing Interfaces and Inheriting Classes

#!csharp

using static System.Console;

#!csharp

public class PersonException : Exception
{
  public PersonException() : base() { }

  public PersonException(string message) : base(message) { }
  
  public PersonException(string message, Exception innerException)
    : base(message, innerException) { }
}

#!csharp

#nullable enable // required in notebook cells that use nullability

public class Person : object, IComparable<Person>
{
  // fields
  public string? Name; // ? allows null
  public DateTime DateOfBirth;
  public List<Person> Children = new(); // C# 9 or later
  
  // methods
  public void WriteToConsole()
  {
    WriteLine($"{Name} was born on a {DateOfBirth:dddd}.");
  }

  // static method to "multiply"
  public static Person Procreate(Person p1, Person p2)
  {
    Person baby = new()
    {
      Name = $"Baby of {p1.Name} and {p2.Name}"
    };

    p1.Children.Add(baby);
    p2.Children.Add(baby);
    
    return baby;
  }

  // instance method to "multiply"
  public Person ProcreateWith(Person partner)
  {
    return Procreate(this, partner);
  }

  // operator to "multiply"
  public static Person operator *(Person p1, Person p2)
  {
  return Person.Procreate(p1, p2);
  }

  // method with a local function
  public static int Factorial(int number)
  {
    if (number < 0)
    {
      throw new ArgumentException(
        $"{nameof(number)} cannot be less than zero.");
    }
    return localFactorial(number);

    int localFactorial(int localNumber) // local function
    {
      if (localNumber < 1) return 1;
      return localNumber * localFactorial(localNumber - 1);
    }
  }

  // delegate field
  public event EventHandler? Shout;

  // data field
  public int AngerLevel;
  
  // method
  public void Poke()
  {
    AngerLevel++;
    
    if (AngerLevel >= 3)
    {
      // if something is listening...
      if (Shout != null)
      {
        // ...then call the delegate
        Shout(this, EventArgs.Empty);
      }
    }
  }

  public int CompareTo(Person? other)
  {
    if (Name is null) return 0;
    return Name.CompareTo(other?.Name);
  }

  // overridden methods
  public override string ToString()
  {
    return $"{Name} is a {base.ToString()}";
  }

  public void TimeTravel(DateTime when)
  {
    if (when <= DateOfBirth)
    {
      throw new PersonException("If you travel back in time to a date earlier than your own birth, then the universe will explode!");
    }
    else
    {
      WriteLine($"Welcome to {when:yyyy}!");
    }
  }

  // end of class
}

#!markdown

# Implementing functionality using methods

#!csharp

Person harry = new() { Name = "Harry" };
Person mary = new() { Name = "Mary" };
Person jill = new() { Name = "Jill" };

// call instance method
Person baby1 = mary.ProcreateWith(harry);
baby1.Name = "Gary";

// call static method
Person baby2 = Person.Procreate(harry, jill);

// call an operator
Person baby3 = harry * mary;

WriteLine($"{harry.Name} has {harry.Children.Count} children.");
WriteLine($"{mary.Name} has {mary.Children.Count} children.");
WriteLine($"{jill.Name} has {jill.Children.Count} children.");
WriteLine(
  format: "{0}'s first child is named \"{1}\".",
  arg0: harry.Name,
  arg1: harry.Children[0].Name);

#!markdown

## Implementing functionality using local functions

#!csharp

WriteLine($"5! is {Person.Factorial(5)}");

#!markdown

# Raising and handling events

#!markdown

## Defining and handling delegates

#!csharp

#nullable enable

static void Harry_Shout(object? sender, EventArgs e)
{
  if (sender is null) return;
  Person p = (Person)sender;
  WriteLine($"{p.Name} is this angry: {p.AngerLevel}.");
}

#!csharp

harry.Shout += Harry_Shout;

#!csharp

harry.Poke();
harry.Poke();
harry.Poke();
harry.Poke();

#!markdown

# Making types safely reusable with generics

#!markdown

## Working with non-generic types

#!csharp

// non-generic lookup collection
System.Collections.Hashtable lookupObject = new();

lookupObject.Add(key: 1, value: "Alpha");
lookupObject.Add(key: 2, value: "Beta");
lookupObject.Add(key: 3, value: "Gamma");
lookupObject.Add(key: harry, value: "Delta");

int key = 2; // lookup the value that has 2 as its key
WriteLine(format: "Key {0} has value: {1}",
  arg0: key,
  arg1: lookupObject[key]);

// lookup the value that has harry as its key
WriteLine(format: "Key {0} has value: {1}",
  arg0: harry,
  arg1: lookupObject[harry]);

#!markdown

## Working with generic types

#!csharp

// generic lookup collection
Dictionary<int, string> lookupIntString = new();

lookupIntString.Add(key: 1, value: "Alpha");
lookupIntString.Add(key: 2, value: "Beta");
lookupIntString.Add(key: 3, value: "Gamma");
lookupIntString.Add(key: 4, value: "Delta");

key = 3;
WriteLine(format: "Key {0} has value: {1}",
  arg0: key,
  arg1: lookupIntString[key]);

#!markdown

# Implementing interfaces

#!markdown

## Comparing objects when sorting

#!csharp

Person[] people =
{
  new() { Name = "Simon" },
  new() { Name = "Jenny" },
  new() { Name = "Adam" },
  new() { Name = "Richard" }
};

WriteLine("Initial list of people:");
foreach (Person p in people)
{
  WriteLine($" {p.Name}");
}

WriteLine("Use Person's IComparable implementation to sort:");
Array.Sort(people);
foreach (Person p in people)
{
  WriteLine($" {p.Name}");
}

#!markdown

## Comparing objects using a separate class

#!csharp

#nullable enable

public class PersonComparer : IComparer<Person>
{
  public int Compare(Person? x, Person? y)
  {
    if (x is null || y is null)
    {
      return 0;
    }

    // Compare the Name lengths...
    int result = x.Name.Length.CompareTo(y.Name.Length);
    
    // ...if they are equal...
    if (result == 0)
    {
      // ...then compare by the Names...
      return x.Name.CompareTo(y.Name);
    }
    else // result will be -1 or 1
    {
      // ...otherwise compare by the lengths.
      return result;
    }
  }
}

#!csharp

WriteLine("Use PersonComparer's IComparer implementation to sort:");
Array.Sort(people, new PersonComparer());
foreach (Person p in people)
{
  WriteLine($" {p.Name}");
}

#!markdown

## Implicit and explicit interface implementations

#!csharp

public interface IGamePlayer
{
  void Lose();
}

public interface IKeyHolder
{
  void Lose();
}

public class Human : IGamePlayer, IKeyHolder
{
  public void Lose() // implicit implementation
  {
    // implement losing a key
    WriteLine("Lost my key!");
  }
  void IGamePlayer.Lose() // explicit implementation
  {
    // implement losing a game
    WriteLine("Lost the game!");
  }
}

// calling implicit and explicit implementations of Lose
Human p = new();

p.Lose(); // calls implicit implementation of losing a key

((IGamePlayer)p).Lose(); // calls explicit implementation of losing a game

IGamePlayer player = p as IGamePlayer;

player.Lose(); // calls explicit implementation of losing a game

#!markdown

## Defining interfaces with default implementations

Note that the code cell below executes successfully despite the `DvdPlayer` class not implementing `Stop`. 

#!csharp

public interface IPlayable
{
  void Play();
  void Pause();

  void Stop() // default interface implementation
  {
    WriteLine("Default implementation of Stop.");
  }
}

public class DvdPlayer : IPlayable
{
  public void Pause()
  {
    WriteLine("DVD player is pausing.");
  }
  public void Play()
  {
    WriteLine("DVD player is playing.");
  }
}

#!markdown

# Managing memory with reference and value types

#!markdown

## How reference and value types are stored in memory

#!csharp

int number1 = 49;
long number2 = 12;
System.Drawing.Point location = new(x: 4, y: 5);

Person kevin = new() { Name = "Kevin",
  DateOfBirth = new(year: 1988, month: 9, day: 23) };

Person sally;

#!markdown

## Equality of types

#!csharp

int a = 3;
int b = 3;
WriteLine($"a == b: {(a == b)}"); // true

#!csharp

Person2 a = new() { Name = "Kevin" };
Person2 b = new() { Name = "Kevin" };
WriteLine($"a == b: {(a == b)}"); // false

#!csharp

Person2 a = new() { Name = "Kevin" };
Person2 b = a;
WriteLine($"a == b: {(a == b)}"); // true

#!csharp

string a = "Kevin";
string b = "Kevin";
WriteLine($"a == b: {(a == b)}"); // true

#!markdown

# Defining struct types

#!csharp

public struct DisplacementVector
{
  public int X;
  public int Y;

  public DisplacementVector(int initialX, int initialY)
  {
    X = initialX;
    Y = initialY;
  }

  public static DisplacementVector operator +(
    DisplacementVector vector1,
    DisplacementVector vector2)
  {
    return new(
      vector1.X + vector2.X,
      vector1.Y + vector2.Y);
  }
}

#!csharp

DisplacementVector dv1 = new(3, 5);
DisplacementVector dv2 = new(-2, 7);
DisplacementVector dv3 = dv1 + dv2;

WriteLine($"({dv1.X}, {dv1.Y}) + ({dv2.X}, {dv2.Y}) = ({dv3.X}, {dv3.Y})");

#!markdown

## Working with record struct types

#!csharp

public record struct DisplacementVector(int X, int Y);

#!markdown

## Releasing unmanaged resources

#!csharp

public class Animal
{
  public Animal() // constructor
  {
    // allocate any unmanaged resources
  }
  
  ~Animal() // Finalizer aka destructor
  {
    // deallocate any unmanaged resources
  }
}

#!csharp

public class Animal : IDisposable
{
  public Animal()
  {
    // allocate unmanaged resource
  }

  ~Animal() // Finalizer
  {
    Dispose(false);
  }

  bool disposed = false; // have resources been released?
  
  public void Dispose()
  {
    Dispose(true);
    // tell garbage collector it does not need to call the finalizer
    GC.SuppressFinalize(this);
  }

  protected virtual void Dispose(bool disposing)
  {
    if (disposed) return;
    
    // deallocate the *unmanaged* resource
    // ...
    
    if (disposing)
    {
      // deallocate any other *managed* resources
      // ...
    }
    disposed = true;
  }
}

#!csharp

using (Animal a = new())
{
  // code that uses the Animal instance
}

#!csharp

Animal a = new();
try
{
  // code that uses the Animal instance
}
finally
{
  if (a != null) a.Dispose();
}

#!markdown

# Working with null values

#!csharp

int thisCannotBeNull = 4;
//thisCannotBeNull = null; // compile error!

int? thisCouldBeNull = null;
WriteLine(thisCouldBeNull);
WriteLine(thisCouldBeNull.GetValueOrDefault());

thisCouldBeNull = 7;
WriteLine(thisCouldBeNull);
WriteLine(thisCouldBeNull.GetValueOrDefault());

#!markdown

## Declaring non-nullable variables and parameters

#!csharp

#nullable enable

class Address
{
  public string? Building;
  public string Street = string.Empty;
  public string City = string.Empty;
  public string Region = string.Empty;
}

Address address = new();
address.Building = null;
address.Street = null;
address.City = "London";
address.Region = null;

#!markdown

## Checking for null

#!csharp

string authorName = null;

// the following throws a NullReferenceException
//int x = authorName.Length;

// instead of throwing an exception, null is assigned to y
int? y = authorName?.Length;

if (!y.HasValue) WriteLine("y is null");

// result will be 3 if authorName?.Length is null
int result = authorName?.Length ?? 3;
Console.WriteLine(result);

#!markdown

# Inheriting from classes

#!csharp

#nullable enable

public class Employee : Person
{
  public string? EmployeeCode { get; set; }
  public DateTime HireDate { get; set; }

  public new void WriteToConsole()
  {
    WriteLine(format:
      "{0} was born on {1:dd/MM/yy} and hired on {2:dd/MM/yy}",
      arg0: Name,
      arg1: DateOfBirth,
      arg2: HireDate);
  }

  public override string ToString()
  {
    return $"{Name}'s code is {EmployeeCode}";
  }
}

#!csharp

Employee john = new()
{
  Name = "John Jones",
  DateOfBirth = new(year: 1990, month: 7, day: 28)
};
john.WriteToConsole();

#!markdown

## Extending classes to add functionality

#!csharp

john.EmployeeCode = "JJ001";
john.HireDate = new(year: 2014, month: 11, day: 23);
WriteLine($"{john.Name} was hired on {john.HireDate:dd/MM/yy}");

#!markdown

## Overriding members

#!csharp

WriteLine(john.ToString());

#!markdown

## Inheriting from abstract classes

#!csharp

public interface INoImplementation // C# 1.0 and later
{
  void Alpha(); // must be implemented by derived type
}

public interface ISomeImplementation // C# 8.0 and later
{
  void Alpha(); // must be implemented by derived type

  void Beta()
  {
    // default implementation; can be overridden
  }
}

public abstract class PartiallyImplemented // C# 1.0 and later
{
  public abstract void Gamma(); // must be implemented by derived type

  public virtual void Delta() // can be overridden
  {
    // implementation
  }
}

public class FullyImplemented : PartiallyImplemented, ISomeImplementation
{
  public void Alpha()
  {
    // implementation
  }
  public override void Gamma()
  {
    // implementation
  }
}

// you can only instantiate the fully implemented class
FullyImplemented a = new();

// all the other types give compile errors
PartiallyImplemented b = new(); // compile error!
ISomeImplementation c = new(); // compile error!
INoImplementation d = new(); // compile error!

#!markdown

## Preventing inheritance and overriding

You can prevent another developer from inheriting from your class by applying the `sealed`
keyword to its definition. 

#!csharp

public sealed class ScroogeMcDuck
{
}

#!markdown

You can prevent someone from further overriding a `virtual` method in your class by applying
the `sealed` keyword to the method. You can only seal an overridden method.

#!csharp

public class Singer
{
  // virtual allows this method to be overridden
  public virtual void Sing()
  {
    WriteLine("Singing...");
  }
}

public class LadyGaga : Singer
{
  // sealed prevents overriding the method in subclasses
  public sealed override void Sing()
  {
    WriteLine("Singing with style...");
  }
}

#!markdown

## Understanding polymorphism

#!csharp

Employee aliceInEmployee = new()
  { Name = "Alice", EmployeeCode = "AA123" };
  
Person aliceInPerson = aliceInEmployee;
aliceInEmployee.WriteToConsole();
aliceInPerson.WriteToConsole();
WriteLine(aliceInEmployee.ToString());
WriteLine(aliceInPerson.ToString());

#!markdown

## Casting within inheritance hierarchies

#!csharp

Employee explicitAlice = aliceInPerson;

#!csharp

if (aliceInPerson is Employee)
{
  WriteLine($"{nameof(aliceInPerson)} IS an Employee");
  Employee explicitAlice = (Employee)aliceInPerson;
  // safely do something with explicitAlice
}

#!csharp

#nullable enable

Employee? aliceAsEmployee = aliceInPerson as Employee; // could be null
if (aliceAsEmployee != null)
{
  WriteLine($"{nameof(aliceInPerson)} AS an Employee");
  // safely do something with aliceAsEmployee
}

#!markdown

# Inheriting and extending .NET types

#!csharp

try
{
  john.TimeTravel(when: new(1999, 12, 31));
  john.TimeTravel(when: new(1950, 12, 25));
}
catch (PersonException ex)
{
  WriteLine(ex.Message);
}

#!markdown

## Using static methods to reuse functionality

#!csharp

using System.Text.RegularExpressions;

#!csharp

public class StringExtensions
{
  public static bool IsValidEmail(string input)
  {
    // use simple regular expression to check
    // that the input string is a valid email
    return Regex.IsMatch(input,
      @"[a-zA-Z0-9\.-_]+@[a-zA-Z0-9\.-_]+");
  }
}

#!csharp

string email1 = "pamela@test.com";
string email2 = "ian&test.com";

WriteLine("{0} is a valid e-mail address: {1}",
  arg0: email1,
  arg1: StringExtensions.IsValidEmail(email1));

WriteLine("{0} is a valid e-mail address: {1}",
  arg0: email2,
  arg1: StringExtensions.IsValidEmail(email2));

#!markdown

Extension methods must be defined in a top-level static method so they cannot be defined in a notebook.

#!markdown

# Using an analyzer to write better code

You cannot run code analyzers on notebook code.